Table 1 Variables in the empirical model

Expectations to go to university

Dummy equal to 1 if respondent intends to continue his/her studies at university after high school, 0 otherwise

North-east, North-west, Center, South, Isles

Dummies for geographical area of residence

Italians

Dummy equal to 1 if respondent was born in Italy and both parents were born in Italy, 0 otherwise

Second generation

Dummy equal to 1 if respondent was born in Italy and at least one parent was born abroad, 0 otherwise

First generation

Dummy equal to 1 if respondent was foreign-born, 0 otherwise

Arrived before 2003

Dummy equal to 1 for first-generation students arrived in Italy before 2003, 0 Otherwise

Arrived in 2003/2007

Dummy equal to 1 for first-generation students arrived in Italy between 2003 and 2007, 0 otherwise

Arrived in 2008/2014

Dummy equal to 1 for first-generation students arrived in Italy between 2008 and 2014, 0 otherwise

Arrived in 2015

Dummy equal to 1 for first-generation students arrived in Italy in 2015, 0 otherwise

Family wealth

Wealth conditions of respondent’s family (1 = very rich…4 = very poor)

Working father/mother

Dummy equal to 1 if his/her father/mother works, 0 otherwise

BigMun

Dummy equal to 1 if respondent lives in a big municipality (more than 250.000 inhabitants in Northern and Central Italy or in Naples), 0 otherwise

School year

Year of school

Father/mother education

Father/mother education level (1 = no schooling, …0.5: bachelor or more)

ENRmale-90 and ENRmale-15

Measure the ratio of total enrollment of males in tertiary education, regardless of age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to tertiary education in 1990 and 2015, respectively. ENRmale-90 refers to fathers’ source countries, ENRmale15 to sampled individuals’ birthplaces

ENRfemale-90 and ENRfemale-15

Measure the ratio of total enrollment of females in tertiary education, regardless of age, to the population of the age group that officially corresponds to tertiary education, in 1990 and 2015, respectively. ENRfemale-90 refers to mothers’ source countries, ENRfemale15 to sampled individuals’ birthplaces

ENR-90

Has been obtained as average between ENRmale-90 and ENRfemale-90

ENR-15

Has been obtained as average between ENRmale-15 and ENRfemale-15

GII-95

The Gender Inequality Index—is a composite measure reflecting inequality in achievement between women and men in the dimensions of reproductive health, empowerment and the labor market, taken in 1995. GII-95 refers to parents’ birthplaces (if these are different, GII-95 is the average). Higher values, on a range 0–1, indicate more disparities between females and males

GII-15

The Gender Inequality Index—is a composite measure reflecting inequality in achievement between women and men in the dimensions of reproductive health, empowerment and the labor market, taken in 2015. GII-15 refers to sampled individuals’ birthplaces. Higher values, on a range 0–1, indicate more disparities between females and males

GDP-90

Gross domestic product per capita (current US$) in 1990; refers to parents’ source countries

GDP-15

Gross domestic product per capita (current US$) in 2015; refers to sampled individuals’ birthplaces